No clinician would consider entering clinical practice without knowing the rudiments of history-taking and physical examination. Nor would clinicians consider independent practice without a basic understanding of how the drugs they prescribe act on their patients. Yet, traditionally, clinicians have started practice without an ability to understand evidence about how they should interpret what they find on history and physical examination, or the magnitude of the effects they might expect when they offer patients medication.
Evidence-based medicine (EBM) provides a remedy for this problem. The movement to teach clinicians to become effective users of medical literature began in the 1970s and evolved through the 1980s into a whole system for the delivery of clinical care. We needed a name for this new way of practice and the term ‘evidence-based medicine’, which first appeared in the medical literature in 1991[1], proved extremely popular. Over the subsequent 16 years evidence-based medicine has evolved and now represents not only an approach to using the medical literature effectively, but a principled guide for the process of clinical decision-making.
Members of the general public are surprised, and often appalled, when they learn that most physicians remain unable to critically read an original research article or fully understand the results reported there. For the physician, inability to critically appraise a research study and grasp all that is implied in its findings limits their independence. The result is reliance on expert opinion, the practices of colleagues and on information from the pharmaceutical industry. But what is one to do if experts and colleagues disagree, or if one is mistrustful of the enthusiastic advice from a pharmaceutical industry representative?
This book represents the key to a world that provides the answer to that question, a world that has traditionally been closed to most practising physicians: the world of original medical literature. Opening the door to this world is enormously empowering. No longer must one choose what to believe on the basis of which recommendation is backed by the most authority, or speaks with the loudest voice. The ability to differentiate high from low quality evidence and large treatment effects from small allows clinicians to make independent judgements about what is best for their patients. It also allows them to explain the impact of alternatives to the patients themselves, and thus to ensure that choices are consistent with patients’ underlying values and preferences.
Ten years ago, experts and the official voices of the organizations to which they belonged consistently recommended longterm hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for post-menopausal women. These recommendations were made largely on the basis of observational studies suggesting that women taking HRT could expect large reductions to their risk of major cardiovascular events. Proponents of evidence-based medicine raised concerns about the wisdom of this strong advocacy of therapy for huge populations on the basis of the fundamentally weak methods of observational studies. Their voices were largely ignored, until randomized trials demonstrated that the results of the observational studies were incorrect. If HRT has any impact on cardiovascular disease at all, it is to increase its frequency.
Many clinical communities now endorse widespread population screening to prevent the occurrence of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Breast cancer screening for women as young as 40 years, colon cancer screening for entire populations and treatment to improve lipid profiles even in very low risk patients are widely advocated. Many clinicians are unaware that to prolong a single life, hundreds of individuals must be screened for breast or colon cancer or treated with lipid profile-modifying agents for periods of up to a decade. The costs include anxiety as a result of the many false positive results, complications of invasive procedures such as lumpectomy or colonoscopy, side effects of treatment (including deaths as a result of a lipidlowering agent now withdrawn from the market) and resource investment that, at least for some individuals, might be better allocated elsewhere. The point is not that the experts were uniformly wrong in suggesting that women consider HRT, nor that screening or treatment of low-risk individuals to modify their cancer or coronary risk is wrong. Rather, it is that clinicians should be aware there are important trade-offs in these decisions.
If clinicians don’t know the difference between an observational study and a randomized trial, or between a relative risk reduction and a risk difference, they are in no position to understand these trade-offs. If they are unable to understand the trade-offs, it is not possible for them to convey the possible benefits and risks to their patients, many of whom may, with a full understanding, decline screening or treatment.
This book provides the basic tools for the clinician to evaluate the strength of original studies, to understand their results and to apply those results in day-to-day clinical practice. I am delighted to inform the reader that its editors are not only brilliant teachers who have created a wonderful introductory text, but wonderful human beings. I met Tony and Inday Dans just about the time that our McMaster group was realizing that what we had been calling ‘critical appraisal’ had evolved into a systematic approach to medical practice, a system of thinking about clinical care and clinical decision-making.
Inday and Tony had come to McMaster to train in clinical epidemiology – the science that underlies evidence-based medicine. I had the great pleasure of working with both these brilliant, enthusiastic and critical young people. I was extremely fortunate that Tony chose me as one of his supervisors, and as a result we had the opportunity to work particularly closely together. It was not long before I discovered that I had the privilege of interacting with an extraordinary individual, exceptional even among the lively, intelligent, dedicated students who populated our Masters program. Tony was far more questioning than most students, and possessed a far deeper and more intense social conscience. To me, these qualities were very striking.
Since their days at McMaster, Inday and Tony have continued to demonstrate their high intelligence, tremendous initiative, extraordinary ability to question and explore issues at the deepest level and their unusual and extremely admirable social conscience. Having a social conscience leads you to challenge existing power structures and vested interests. Doing so requires more than conscience: it requires courage. I have had the good fortune and great pleasure to interact with Inday and Tony in a variety of settings at quite regular intervals, and have as a result seen first-hand how their courage has led them to repeatedly challenge authority and power, acting in the interests of the Philippine people. To use the adjective preferred by young Canadians nowadays, their performance has been consistently awesome.
I will add one final anecdote about what makes Tony and Inday so special. Each year, we conduct a ‘how to teach evidencebased medicine’ workshop at McMaster. In the last few years, Tony and Inday have participated in the workshop in the role of tutor trainees. Almost all participants in the workshop feel they learn a great deal, and take elements of what they have discovered back to their own teaching settings. But very few, and extremely few among the very experienced, make major innovations in their teaching as a result. Despite having run literally dozens of extremely successful workshops in the Philippines prior to their participation in the McMaster workshop, Inday and Tony took the key elements of the McMaster strategy and revamped their approach to their own workshops. The result has been a spectacular success, with Philippine participants reporting profoundly positive educational experiences. In the two decades in which I have participated in our workshop, I’ve never seen anyone make as good use of their experience with us. The message about Tony and Inday: a tremendous openness and ability to integrate what they’ve learned and apply in imaginative and perspicacious ways in their own setting.
One fortunate consequence of Inday and Tony’s brilliant teaching – which makes the presentation of this book so vividly clear – is that it inspires others. About ten years ago Mianne Silvestre, a neonatologist, attended one of the Dans’ workshops and emerged as an EBM enthusiast. She took on a teaching role and emerged as one of the most effective EBM facilitators in the Philippines. Her insights and experience have also contributed to the lucid presentations in this text.
We shall now take advantage of Inday, Tony and Mianne’s enormous experience of EBM and their imagination and brilliant teaching abilities in this wonderful book. The title ‘Painless EBM’ captures the essence of their work. They have presented challenging concepts in simple, clear and extremely appealing ways which make learning EBM painless and enjoyable. They have emphasized the last of the three pillars of the EBM approach: while the book tells you about validity and understanding the results, the focus is on applicability. What is the meaning of the evidence? How can you apply it in your own setting? How can you apply the evidence to patients with very different circumstances and varying values and preferences?
Increasingly, applying the literature to clinical practice does not mean a detailed reading of a large number of original studies. Rather, the clinician can recognize valid pre-appraised resources and differentiate them from poorly substantiated opinion. The book provides guides for assessing not only original studies of diagnosis and therapy, but also systematic reviews which summarize a number of such original studies. The ability to differentiate strong from weak literature reviews and to understand summaries of the magnitude of treatment effects is crucial for efficient evidence-based practice.
When a new pivotal study comes to light, evidence-based clinicians do not need to read it in detail to evaluate its significance or to decide how to use its results. Imagine that I am telling you about a recently conducted study reporting an apparently important treatment effect. I tell you: that the study was a randomized trial and that randomization was adequately concealed; that patients, caregivers and those collecting and adjudicating outcome data were blind to whether patients received treatment or control interventions; that investigators successfully followed all patients who were randomized; and that, in the analysis, all patients were included in the groups to which they were randomized.
Assuming that I am skilled in making these judgements, and am telling you the truth, you have all the information you need to judge the validity of the study. If I then provide you with a few crucial details of who was enrolled, how the interventions were administered and the magnitude and precision of estimates of the impact of the intervention on all patient-relevant outcomes, you have everything you need to apply the results in clinical practice.
Synopses of individual studies which provide the crucial information needed to understand the appropriate strength of inference to apply the results are increasingly available, as are systematic reviews and, to a lesser extent, high quality evidence based practice guidelines. Entire systems of knowledge based on evidence-based principles and textbooks of evidence-based medicine are beginning to arrive. The innovative electronic text UpToDate is an example of a resource that strives to be fully evidence-based and to provide guidance for most dilemmas that clinicians face in practice; UpToDate is effective in meeting both these aims.
When you, as a clinician, have read and digested the current text, you will have the tools to read and interpret synopses and systematic reviews and will be able to find such pearls in the rocky landscape of the current medical literature. In this text you will find case studies and examples directly relevant to your area of clinical practice. More importantly, you will find true to life examples of how to address the daily patient dilemmas you face more effectively. You will find clinical practice more satisfying and, most important, you will be more confident in providing your patients with optimal medical care. Finally, if you are interested in a deeper understanding of EBM, this book provides a stepping stone to a more comprehensive text that can provide knowledge and skills required for not only the practice, but also the teaching of EBM.
It has been my privilege and joy to reflect on EBM in the context of this wonderful book, prepared by two of my dear friends and their outstanding colleague.
- Gordon Guyatt, MD -
Key Features
Contents
Book Details
Evidence-based medicine (EBM) provides a remedy for this problem. The movement to teach clinicians to become effective users of medical literature began in the 1970s and evolved through the 1980s into a whole system for the delivery of clinical care. We needed a name for this new way of practice and the term ‘evidence-based medicine’, which first appeared in the medical literature in 1991[1], proved extremely popular. Over the subsequent 16 years evidence-based medicine has evolved and now represents not only an approach to using the medical literature effectively, but a principled guide for the process of clinical decision-making.
Members of the general public are surprised, and often appalled, when they learn that most physicians remain unable to critically read an original research article or fully understand the results reported there. For the physician, inability to critically appraise a research study and grasp all that is implied in its findings limits their independence. The result is reliance on expert opinion, the practices of colleagues and on information from the pharmaceutical industry. But what is one to do if experts and colleagues disagree, or if one is mistrustful of the enthusiastic advice from a pharmaceutical industry representative?
This book represents the key to a world that provides the answer to that question, a world that has traditionally been closed to most practising physicians: the world of original medical literature. Opening the door to this world is enormously empowering. No longer must one choose what to believe on the basis of which recommendation is backed by the most authority, or speaks with the loudest voice. The ability to differentiate high from low quality evidence and large treatment effects from small allows clinicians to make independent judgements about what is best for their patients. It also allows them to explain the impact of alternatives to the patients themselves, and thus to ensure that choices are consistent with patients’ underlying values and preferences.
Ten years ago, experts and the official voices of the organizations to which they belonged consistently recommended longterm hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for post-menopausal women. These recommendations were made largely on the basis of observational studies suggesting that women taking HRT could expect large reductions to their risk of major cardiovascular events. Proponents of evidence-based medicine raised concerns about the wisdom of this strong advocacy of therapy for huge populations on the basis of the fundamentally weak methods of observational studies. Their voices were largely ignored, until randomized trials demonstrated that the results of the observational studies were incorrect. If HRT has any impact on cardiovascular disease at all, it is to increase its frequency.
Many clinical communities now endorse widespread population screening to prevent the occurrence of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Breast cancer screening for women as young as 40 years, colon cancer screening for entire populations and treatment to improve lipid profiles even in very low risk patients are widely advocated. Many clinicians are unaware that to prolong a single life, hundreds of individuals must be screened for breast or colon cancer or treated with lipid profile-modifying agents for periods of up to a decade. The costs include anxiety as a result of the many false positive results, complications of invasive procedures such as lumpectomy or colonoscopy, side effects of treatment (including deaths as a result of a lipidlowering agent now withdrawn from the market) and resource investment that, at least for some individuals, might be better allocated elsewhere. The point is not that the experts were uniformly wrong in suggesting that women consider HRT, nor that screening or treatment of low-risk individuals to modify their cancer or coronary risk is wrong. Rather, it is that clinicians should be aware there are important trade-offs in these decisions.
If clinicians don’t know the difference between an observational study and a randomized trial, or between a relative risk reduction and a risk difference, they are in no position to understand these trade-offs. If they are unable to understand the trade-offs, it is not possible for them to convey the possible benefits and risks to their patients, many of whom may, with a full understanding, decline screening or treatment.
This book provides the basic tools for the clinician to evaluate the strength of original studies, to understand their results and to apply those results in day-to-day clinical practice. I am delighted to inform the reader that its editors are not only brilliant teachers who have created a wonderful introductory text, but wonderful human beings. I met Tony and Inday Dans just about the time that our McMaster group was realizing that what we had been calling ‘critical appraisal’ had evolved into a systematic approach to medical practice, a system of thinking about clinical care and clinical decision-making.
Inday and Tony had come to McMaster to train in clinical epidemiology – the science that underlies evidence-based medicine. I had the great pleasure of working with both these brilliant, enthusiastic and critical young people. I was extremely fortunate that Tony chose me as one of his supervisors, and as a result we had the opportunity to work particularly closely together. It was not long before I discovered that I had the privilege of interacting with an extraordinary individual, exceptional even among the lively, intelligent, dedicated students who populated our Masters program. Tony was far more questioning than most students, and possessed a far deeper and more intense social conscience. To me, these qualities were very striking.
Since their days at McMaster, Inday and Tony have continued to demonstrate their high intelligence, tremendous initiative, extraordinary ability to question and explore issues at the deepest level and their unusual and extremely admirable social conscience. Having a social conscience leads you to challenge existing power structures and vested interests. Doing so requires more than conscience: it requires courage. I have had the good fortune and great pleasure to interact with Inday and Tony in a variety of settings at quite regular intervals, and have as a result seen first-hand how their courage has led them to repeatedly challenge authority and power, acting in the interests of the Philippine people. To use the adjective preferred by young Canadians nowadays, their performance has been consistently awesome.
I will add one final anecdote about what makes Tony and Inday so special. Each year, we conduct a ‘how to teach evidencebased medicine’ workshop at McMaster. In the last few years, Tony and Inday have participated in the workshop in the role of tutor trainees. Almost all participants in the workshop feel they learn a great deal, and take elements of what they have discovered back to their own teaching settings. But very few, and extremely few among the very experienced, make major innovations in their teaching as a result. Despite having run literally dozens of extremely successful workshops in the Philippines prior to their participation in the McMaster workshop, Inday and Tony took the key elements of the McMaster strategy and revamped their approach to their own workshops. The result has been a spectacular success, with Philippine participants reporting profoundly positive educational experiences. In the two decades in which I have participated in our workshop, I’ve never seen anyone make as good use of their experience with us. The message about Tony and Inday: a tremendous openness and ability to integrate what they’ve learned and apply in imaginative and perspicacious ways in their own setting.
One fortunate consequence of Inday and Tony’s brilliant teaching – which makes the presentation of this book so vividly clear – is that it inspires others. About ten years ago Mianne Silvestre, a neonatologist, attended one of the Dans’ workshops and emerged as an EBM enthusiast. She took on a teaching role and emerged as one of the most effective EBM facilitators in the Philippines. Her insights and experience have also contributed to the lucid presentations in this text.
We shall now take advantage of Inday, Tony and Mianne’s enormous experience of EBM and their imagination and brilliant teaching abilities in this wonderful book. The title ‘Painless EBM’ captures the essence of their work. They have presented challenging concepts in simple, clear and extremely appealing ways which make learning EBM painless and enjoyable. They have emphasized the last of the three pillars of the EBM approach: while the book tells you about validity and understanding the results, the focus is on applicability. What is the meaning of the evidence? How can you apply it in your own setting? How can you apply the evidence to patients with very different circumstances and varying values and preferences?
Increasingly, applying the literature to clinical practice does not mean a detailed reading of a large number of original studies. Rather, the clinician can recognize valid pre-appraised resources and differentiate them from poorly substantiated opinion. The book provides guides for assessing not only original studies of diagnosis and therapy, but also systematic reviews which summarize a number of such original studies. The ability to differentiate strong from weak literature reviews and to understand summaries of the magnitude of treatment effects is crucial for efficient evidence-based practice.
When a new pivotal study comes to light, evidence-based clinicians do not need to read it in detail to evaluate its significance or to decide how to use its results. Imagine that I am telling you about a recently conducted study reporting an apparently important treatment effect. I tell you: that the study was a randomized trial and that randomization was adequately concealed; that patients, caregivers and those collecting and adjudicating outcome data were blind to whether patients received treatment or control interventions; that investigators successfully followed all patients who were randomized; and that, in the analysis, all patients were included in the groups to which they were randomized.
Assuming that I am skilled in making these judgements, and am telling you the truth, you have all the information you need to judge the validity of the study. If I then provide you with a few crucial details of who was enrolled, how the interventions were administered and the magnitude and precision of estimates of the impact of the intervention on all patient-relevant outcomes, you have everything you need to apply the results in clinical practice.
Synopses of individual studies which provide the crucial information needed to understand the appropriate strength of inference to apply the results are increasingly available, as are systematic reviews and, to a lesser extent, high quality evidence based practice guidelines. Entire systems of knowledge based on evidence-based principles and textbooks of evidence-based medicine are beginning to arrive. The innovative electronic text UpToDate is an example of a resource that strives to be fully evidence-based and to provide guidance for most dilemmas that clinicians face in practice; UpToDate is effective in meeting both these aims.
When you, as a clinician, have read and digested the current text, you will have the tools to read and interpret synopses and systematic reviews and will be able to find such pearls in the rocky landscape of the current medical literature. In this text you will find case studies and examples directly relevant to your area of clinical practice. More importantly, you will find true to life examples of how to address the daily patient dilemmas you face more effectively. You will find clinical practice more satisfying and, most important, you will be more confident in providing your patients with optimal medical care. Finally, if you are interested in a deeper understanding of EBM, this book provides a stepping stone to a more comprehensive text that can provide knowledge and skills required for not only the practice, but also the teaching of EBM.
It has been my privilege and joy to reflect on EBM in the context of this wonderful book, prepared by two of my dear friends and their outstanding colleague.
- Gordon Guyatt, MD -
- Offers a simplified approach to the complex or technical subject of evidence-based medicine, in terms of presentation as well as content.
- Is truly designed for the world market place.
- Breaks the subject into succinct chapters, each chapter being a self sufficient introduction to the topic.
- Includes pre-tested ‘tackle boxes’ throughout to help readers understand the issues.
Contents
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Evaluation of Articles on Therapy
- 3 Evaluation of Articles on Diagnosis
- 4 Evaluation of Articles on Harm
- 5 Evaluation of Articles on Prognosis
- 6 Evaluation of Systematic Reviews
- 7 Literature Searches
- Index
Book Details
- Paperback: 160 pages
- Publisher: Wiley; 1 edition (August 26, 2008)
- Language: English
- ISBN-10: 0470519398
- ISBN-13: 978-0470519394
- Product Dimensions: 7.7 x 5 x 0.4 inches